Glossary

Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or liquid solution accumulates on the surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent), forming a molecular or atomic film (the adsorbate). Adsorption is different from absorption, where a substance diffuses into a liquid or solid to form a solution.

Undifferentiated cells in a tissue. These cells can grow into any of the types of specialised cells in that tissue.

One of two or more alternative forms of a gene. A person may have two copies of the same allele (homozygous) or two different forms (heterozygous). Different alleles arise from changes in the base sequence of that gene through mutations. For example, the gene for eye colour has different alleles resulting in blue or brown eyes.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 known amino acids found in living organisms. The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its function. This sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases found in the gene coding for that protein.

A procedure in which a small amount of amniotic fluid (the fluid surrounding a baby in the womb) is drawn out using a needle and syringe. Because amniotic fluid contains cells from the baby, it can be used to test for chromosomal and genetic disorders, as well as certain birth defects.

A condition caused by a reduced number of red blood cells or haemoglobin. This results in reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, and reduced aerobic activity in body cells.

A laboratory animal with a specific disease that researchers experiment with to find out more about the causes of a disease, its diagnosis in humans, and to investigate or trial new treatments or preventative actions. Animal models of disease may occur naturally in an animal population, be bred using techniques such as genetic engineering, or by exposing animals to environments that induce that disease to develop.

An ion consists of one or more atoms and carries a unit charge of electricity. Negative ions are called anions.

A view that regards humans as the central element of the universe. Proponents believe that we should only protect and replenish the environment so that it serves human purposes such as producing food and drugs, and that the fate of animals and plants are not morally significant except in terms of sustaining human wellbeing.

Proteins produced by the immune system of humans and other vertebrates in response to the presence of a specific antigen.

Substance that prevents blood from clotting.

A sequence of three bases in a molecule of transfer RNA(tRNA) that binds to a complementary codon in messenger RNA(mRNA). Each anticodon designates a specific amino acid to be added to a growing polypeptide.

Any substance that stimulates the production of antibodies in the body. For example, pollen grains, dust, bacteria and viruses are recognised by the body as being foreign and it responds by producing specific antibodies to the antigen.

The placement of sperm inside the female reproductive tract to improve the chances of fertilisation and pregnancy occurring. Artificial insemination is also called intrauterine insemination.

A general-purpose device for manufacturing at the molecular scale capable of guiding chemical reactions by positioning molecules.

Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) refer to advanced fertility techniques, such as in vitro fertilisation (IVF), used to bring eggs and sperm together to help achieve pregnancy.

The smallest unit of a chemical element, about a third of a nanometre in diameter. Atoms make up molecules and solid objects.

'Autosomal' refers to a non-sex chromosome. Autosomal dominance is when one particular form of a gene (one allele) dominates over other alleles, and is always expressed when present in an individual, whether they are homozygous or heterozygous for that allele.

Referred to as the "bird flu", this is a highly contagious influenza virus that can infect any bird.

A species of soil bacterium that possess genes for a group of insecticides (Bt toxins). Different strains of the bacterium produce different Bt toxins. Some organic farmers use this bacterium as an alternative to using chemicals to control pest insects. The genes for Bt toxins have been added to GM cotton plants so that the plants produce the insecticides.

A large group of single-celled organisms that do not have organelles enclosed in membranes. Most of their DNA is located in one chromosome and the remainder in small circular plasmids. They have a cell wall composed of protein and complex carbohydrate over a plasma membrane.

A type of virus that specifically infects insect cells.

The dry, fibrous residue that remains after the stalks of sugar cane have been crushed and all the juice extracted. It can be used as a source of cellulose for some paper products.

Part of four types of simple molecules or nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine) that are the sub-units (building blocks) of DNA and RNA.

Pairs of complementary bases that form each rung of the DNA double helix. Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine

The order of the chemical units (bases) adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine in DNA that forms the genetic code. The sequence of the bases will determine what protein is produced.

Any chemical agent that can kill a living organism. For example, pesticides kill insects.

A process aimed at keeping biological organisms within a limited space or area. For example, if an outbreak of a cow disease is found on one farm, a biocontainment process would aim at stopping the disease from spreading to other farms.

An alternative fuel for use in diesel engines that is made from natural renewable sources such animal fats or vegetable oils, and does not contain petroleum. It has similar properties to petroleum but releases fewer environmental pollutants in its emissions. Biodiesel can be used in diesel engines with little or no modifications, either as a diesel fuel substitute, or added to petroleum-based fuels to reduce their polluting effect. Examples include oils from soybeans, rapeseed, sunflowers or animal tallow.

The study of the ethical and moral implications of applications of biomedical research and biotechnology.

Living organisms that attach to and start living on any object that is submerged in the sea. Commonly seen as barnacles attached to the hulls of ships or the bodies of whales.

The control of a population of one organism by another organism. Generally the controlling organism is a predator or disease-causing organism of the species being controlled.

Imitating, copying or learning from nature.

The design of systems, materials and their functionality to mimic nature. Current examples include layering of materials to achieve the hardness of an abalone shell or understanding why spider silk is stronger than steel.

The use of plants and micro-organisms to consume or otherwise help remove materials (such as toxic chemical wastes and metals) from contaminated sites (especially from soil and water). A natural process in which environmental problems are treated by the use of bacteria or other micro-organisms that break down a problem substance, such as oil, into less harmful molecules.

Scientists who use biological processes to develop novel products.

1. A broad term generally used to describe the use of biology in industrial processes such as agriculture, brewing and drug development. The term also refers to the production of genetically modified organisms or the manufacture of products from genetically modified organisms. 2. The use of plants, animals and micro-organisms to create products or processes. Traditional applications include animal breeding, brewing beer with yeast, and cheese making with bacteria. Recent developments include the use of enzymes or bacteria in a wide range of applications, including waste management, industrial production, food production and remediation of contaminated land. Modern biotechnology also includes the use of gene technology, which allows us to move genetic material from one species to another.

The treatment of a waste or hazardous substance using organisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa (see bioremediation).

After a mammalian ovum is fertilised, it begins to divide. The blastocyst, an early stage of this process, consists of a fluid-filled sphere surrounded by a layer of cells. A mass of cells at one side will become the embryo. The blastocyst is formed before implantation in the uterus.

Any of the cells in the early embryo produced as the result of cell division in the fertilised egg. A blastocyst is made up of many blastomeres.

Building organic and inorganic structures atom-by-atom, or molecule-by-molecule.

Motion of a particle in a fluid caused by thermal agitation.

Crop plants that contain genes for Bt toxins. Examples are Bollgard® cotton and Ingard® cotton.

Insecticidal proteins produced by the soil micro-organism called Bacillus thuringiensis. Bt is an abbreviation of Bacillus thuringiensis.

A sphere of sixty carbon atoms, also called a buckyball. Named after the architect Buckminster Fuller, who is famous for the geodesic dome that buckyballs resemble.

A popular name for Buckminsterfullerene.

The virus that causes rabbit calicivirus disease (RCD) in rabbits. It is spread by mosquitoes and fleas.

An abnormal, uncontrolled and rapid growth of cells that invade and destroy surrounding tissues. Cancer is a broad term for more than 100 diseases characterised by this growth. Cells from the tumour can break away (metastasise) and spread through the bloodstream or lymph system to other parts of the body, creating new tumours.

A chemical compound that contains only carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) and has the general formula Cx (H2O)y. Examples include sugars, starches and cellulose. Plant carbohydrates constitute a major food class and are a basic source of energy for all animals.

Carbon black is a powdered form of elemental carbon. The primary use of carbon black is in rubber products, mainly tyres and other automotive products, but also in many other rubber products such as hoses, gaskets and coated fabrics.

An individual who carries one copy of a recessive gene for a hereditary condition.

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by reducing the activation energy, but which is left unchanged by the reaction.

An ion consists of one or more atoms and carries a unit charge of electricity. Those that are positively electrified  are called cations (as compared to anions which are negative ions).

A small structural unit, surrounded by a membrane, making up living things.

The process by which cells split into two copies of the original. The DNA of the original cell is copied and one copy sent to each cell, ensuring that both have the correct amount of DNA.

Cells that grow and divide indefinitely outside the body, and are originally derived from one cell of a specific type.

Involve transplanting stem cells into damaged tissues to regenerate the various cell types of that tissue. For example, bone marrow transplants are a form of cell-based therapy that have been used to treat leukaemia for more than 30 years. New stem cell research may lead to cell-based therapies to treat a range of conditions, including heart disease, spinal injuries, diabetes and Parkinson disease.

A long-chain, branched polysaccharide that forms the cell walls of plants.

The most condensed and constricted region of a chromosome. Joins the two chromatids of the chromosome and is also the attachment point of spindle fibres during cell division when the two chromatids separate.

The application of chemicals (drugs) to control the growth of cells that form a cancer.

A long-chain molecule that is absorbed from food in the intestine or produced in the liver. It is needed as a part of blood plasma and of cell membranes.

The physical method of separation in which the components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary while the other moves in a definite direction. Chromatography is a used for the separation, identification and determination of the chemical components in complex mixtures.

A threadlike component in cells that consists of a single long molecule of DNA coated with proteins. Genes are carried on the chromosomes.

A group of genes, cells or organisms derived from a common ancestor. Each clone is genetically identical.

The process of producing a genetically identical copy. Genes can be cloned, as well as cells and whole organisms. A clone is produced from one individual cell through an asexual process.

A specific sequence of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provides the genetic code for a particular amino acid.

A mixture in which one substance is divided into minute particles (called colloidal particles) and dispersed throughout a second substance. Suspensions in liquids form the basis of a wide variety of systems of scientific and technological importance, including paints, ceramics, cosmetics, agricultural sprays, detergents, soils, biological cells and many food preparations.

Combinations of metals, ceramics, polymers and biological materials that allow multi-functional behaviour. One common practice is reinforcing polymers or ceramics with ceramic fibres to increase strength while retaining light weight and avoiding the brittleness of the monolithic ceramic. Materials used in the body often combine biological and structural functions (e.g., the encapsulation of drugs).

An inherited trait that results in reduced activity of the thyroid gland, generally due to reduced production of thyroid stimulating hormone. The trait reduces the base rate of the body's chemical reactions, and results in tissue swelling and weight gain. It can cause neurological and development problems.

A single-stranded RNA virus that resembles a crown when viewed under an electron microscope because of its petal-shaped projections. Of the more than 30 isolated strains of coronavirus, three or four infect humans and may cause respiratory diseases such as SARS and gastroenteritis. They are believed to cause a large percentage of all common cold cases in humans.

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. A government-funded organisation that carries out science research for the benefit of the community and industry.

An inherited disease resulting in abnormal mucus secretion, which produces severe respiratory problems, incomplete digestion and increased salt secretion in sweat.

Carp which only produce male fish. This slows the growth of the population with the aim of reducing overall carp numbers. Since all fish embryos start life as males, the technology works by silencing or switching off the gene responsible for stimulating the development of female embryos.

A gradual wearing down or away. Also, with regard to soil, a lowering of the nutrient content and associated ability to support continuing crop growth.

A dendrimer is an artificially manufactured or synthesized molecule built up from branched units called monomers. Such processes involve working on the scale of nanometres. Technically, a dendrimer is a polymer, which is a large molecule comprised of many smaller ones linked together.

DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNA) is a code used within cells to form proteins. It also codes for RNA (RiboNucleic Acid) and other regulatory molecules. It may have other as yet undiscovered functions.

A grouping of diseases in which either the body does not synthesise (make) insulin, or its tissues are insensitive to the insulin that is synthesised.

The process by which cells and tissues undergo a series of changes resulting in their specialisation to a specific form or function. A differentiated cell such as a muscle cell or a skin cell contains a full set of genes of that organism, but only expresses the genes necessary for its specific function. In animals, stem cells (both embryonic and adult) are the only cells capable of undergoing differentiation to form more specialised cell types found in the body.

A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium or selenium. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators and oscillators.

1. Substance or particle that can transfer genes into a cell. These include viruses, liposomes (fat globules) and artificial chromosomes (sequences of DNA created in a laboratory) that can transport large amounts of DNA (see vectors).

A purpose built microchip used to identify mutations or alterations in a gene's DNA.

A genetic tool used to compare and contrast DNA sequences using electrophoresis. DNA profiling is used in forensic science and to help in establishing parentage.

An enzyme that helps in the replication of DNA molecules.

A dominant gene will almost always be expressed and lead to a specific physical characteristic. A dominant trait will be expressed in individuals that are either homozygous or heterozygous.

Twin, parallel spirals that form the backbone of DNA. The backbone is formed from alternating sugar and phosphate groups.

An inherited condition due to an extra chromosome 21, either as a third chromosome 21 or attached to chromosome 13, 14 or 15. Also called trisomy 21.

Derives from surface science and physical chemistry and focuses on fabrication of structures in carbon silicon and other inorganic materials. Unlike the 'wet' technology, 'dry' techniques admit use of metals and semiconductors.

The view that considers the whole environment or ecosphere as important and deserving of consideration, without giving preference to organisms such as animals and humans. It states that all elements of the environment have worth and should be valued and cared for.

Cross-linked high-polymer materials with elastic behaviour.

Using an electric charge to separate molecules in a solution or gel according to size. It is routinely used to separate fragments of DNA.

A technique used to optically characterize material types such as semiconductors, dielectrics, metals, organic polymers and plastics in thin films, thin films stacks and in nanostructures. Ellipsometry does not contact or damage samples, and is an ideal and precise measurement technique for determining optical, physical and chemical properties of materials at the nanoscale. It is most commonly used to measure film thickness and optical properties.

Creation of a 3D design or image on paper or other material.

Undifferentiated cells in an embryo that are able to multiply and become differentiated into any type of cell in the body.

A species with such a low population number that it is in danger of extinction.

The view that humans have a duty to manage and care for the whole natural environment; that we are responsible for the continued health of the whole ecosystem, not just the parts that benefit the human race. It involves integrating and applying environmental values into a process.

A protein that acts as a catalyst, affecting the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs within a cell, without being changed or used up in the reaction.

Molecular machines found in nature. They are proteins that speed up chemical reactions.

A hormone released from the kidneys and the liver in response to low oxygen concentrations in the blood. It controls the rate of red blood cell production.

A branch of philosophy that deals with morality. It is concerned with distinguishing between right and wrong human actions, both at an individual and societal level. Ethics may also apply to the rules or standards that specify how particular members of an organisation should conduct themselves.

Death of organisms in a lake or pond due to an overabundance of algae that consume all of the dissolved oxygen in the water. This usually happens when the water becomes rich in mineral and organic nutrients, often due to fertiliser run off from farms.

A complex structural entity surrounding and supporting cells that are found within mammalian tissues. The Extra-Cellular Matrix (ECM) is often referred to as the connective tissue.

Soluble blood proteins that form part of the cascade of the 12 reactions of blood clotting. Factor VIII deficiency is associated with haemophilia A while factor IX deficiency is associated with haemophilia B.

Domestic or introduced animals living in wild conditions, or plants that have become wild.

The union of male and female reproductive cells (gametes) during the process of sexual reproduction to form a cell called a zygote.

A Fullerene is a pure carbon molecule composed of at least 60 atoms of carbon. They are cage-like structures of carbon atoms; the most abundant form produced is Buckminster-fullerene (C60), with sixty carbon atoms arranged in a spherical structure. Because a Fullerene takes a shape similar to a soccer ball or a geodesic dome, it is sometimes referred to as a buckyball after the inventor of the geodesic dome, Buckminster Fuller, for whom the Fullerene is more formally named.

A substance or chemical that kills fungi.

Billions of bits per second. A measure of bandwidth on a digital data transmission medium such as optical fibre.

A sequence of DNA that either codes for the synthesis of a specific protein or has a specific regulatory function.

A collection of cells or artificial chromosomes containing known genetic information.

Conversion of the information coded within a gene to proteins that ultimately control all the operations in a cell.

The process of determining where genes are located on individual chromosomes, their position in relation to other genes and the distance between them.

All of the genetic information, including all variations, contained within a population of a particular species at a particular time.

A technique used to join segments of DNA to form a new genetic combination.

See genetic engineering.

Methods that identify the presence, absence or mutation of a particular gene in an individual.

The addition of a functional gene or groups of genes to a cell using recombinant DNA techniques (see gene splicing) to correct a hereditary disease.

Counselling individuals and prospective parents who are at risk of a particular genetic disease (either themselves or their potential child). Provides them and their families with education and information about genetic-related conditions such as the probabilities, dangers, diagnosis and treatment, and helps them make informed decisions.

A hereditary condition that results from a defective gene or chromosome.

A term covering all laboratory or industrial techniques used to alter the genetic material of organisms. These techniques assist organisms to produce new substances or perform new functions, for example increase yields of compounds already produced by the organism, form new compounds, or allow organisms to adapt to drastically altered environments.

A sequence of DNA with a known location on a chromosome and is known to be associated with a particular gene or trait. Some genetic markers are associated with certain diseases. Detecting these genetic markers in the blood can be used to determine whether an individual is at risk of developing the disease. They are also used as a reference point for mapping other genes.

Any process that alters the genetic material of living organism. This includes duplicating, deleting or inserting one or more new genes or altering the activities of an existing gene. It can be performed on microbes, plants or animals (humans included). Where this is done in humans, it is gene therapy, and only human genes are used.*

Testing a population for alterations in the activity (mutations) of particular genes.

An organism (plant, animal, bacteria, or virus) that has had its genetic material altered, either by the duplication, insertion or deletion of one or more new genes, or by changing the activities of an existing gene.*

All of the genetic information or hereditary material possessed by an organism.

The study of the full complement of genes that make up an organism.

The genetic makeup of an organism. The combination of genes will interact with the environment to affect the physical appearance (phenotype) of the organism .

The gametes or reproductive cells (eggs and sperm), or precursor cells that will develop into eggs or sperm.

Seeds starting to grow by putting out shoots and roots (can also apply to fungi).

Germline cells are reproductive cells - the egg and the sperm. Any changes to the germline will be passed on to offspring.

A government expert advisory committee that provided guidance to the government and industry on the safe and responsible development and use of gene technology in Australia before the commencement of the Gene Technology Act 2000 in June 2001.

Within an embryo, the area of cells that will develop into the gonads of foetus. This usually develops around 32 days after fertilisation.

Stem cells that make all the blood cells in the body. They are found in the bone marrow - the tissue that fills most bone cavities.

The protein found in the blood of most vertebrates and some invertebrates that carries oxygen to the organs and tissues of the body.

An inherited disease that is due to a deficiency or lack of certain compounds, such as factor VIII or IX, in the blood. This results in excessive internal or external bleeding due to impaired blood clotting.

Dangerous.

Liver inflammation usually caused by a virus.

A substance that kills plants. Used in agriculture, horticulture and gardening. Can be selective (kill selected species) or non-selective (broad spectrum - kill all plants).

A pathological condition due to changes in individual genes, or groups of genes or in sections of chromosomes or whole chromosomes. These changes may be passed from parents to offspring.

Having two different forms of a particular gene, one inherited from each parent. For example, a person with brown eyes may also carry a gene for blue eyes.

Having two forms of a particular gene that are the same, one inherited from each parent. For example, a person with brown eyes who carries another gene for brown eyes - two of the same forms of the eye colour gene.

Chemicals in the blood which have a messenger function within the body. They are produced by cells of an endocrine gland or by nerve cells in response to a specific nervous or chemical stimulus. They affect the metabolic function of those cells that have the appropriate receptor for the hormone.

An animal or plant on which, or in which, a parasite lives. While the parasite receives nourishment and support from the host, the host does not benefit and is often harmed by the association.

The project that has identified and located all of the genes in human DNA, and determined the sequences of the chemical bases that make up human DNA. This information is stored in computer databases.

Soluble blood proteins that make up about 55% of plasma proteins. They are involved in maintaining fluid balance in the blood.

An inherited disease due to a defective gene on the short arm of chromosome 4. It results in loss of motor control and mental deterioration. Symptoms frequently do not appear until after reproductive age, meaning the defective gene may already have been passed on to offspring when symptoms develop.

Something of mixed origin or composition. In the case of a plant or animal, a hybrid is produced by breeding together plants or animals of different varieties, species or race. A hybrid is the offspring of genetically dissimilar parents.

An organic compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons are derived mostly from crude petroleum or from coal tar and plant sources.

Literally means 'water-loving'. This can describe a molecule or part of a molecule that has an affinity for water, or a substance that readily absorbs or dissolves in water.

Literally means 'water hating'. This describes a molecule or part of a molecule that prefers to be in an environment where there is no water. It means repelling, tending not to combine with, or incapable of dissolving in water.

The reaction of the body to substances that are foreign or treated as foreign. The response is in a variety of forms, from the recognition of antigens in the body, the production of antibodies against the foreign substance and the response of lymphocytes (white blood cells, T cells and B cells).

The cells, proteins (such as antibodies) and cellular activities that work together to fight off infection and provide resistance to subsequent infection.

A method (not currently used) of reducing fertility of a pest species by controlling or preventing conception and pregnancy.

Suppression or silencing of genes depending on which parent they were received from. When DNA is passed to daughter cells after fertilisation of an egg by a sperm, certain alleles can become active only if they were received from the mother, others only if they came from the father. If a gene is suppressed through imprinting from one parent, and the allele from the other parent is not expressed because of mutation, neither allele can be expressed.

Methods of carrying out fertilisation outside the body, frequently used to assist couples unable to conceive naturally.

Incapable of initiating, sustaining, or supporting reproduction. Alternatively, not fertilised and therefore incapable of growing and developing.

A term describing the responsibility of doctors or researchers to ensure that patients or people have an understanding of the relevant facts regarding their care or participation in research. Consumers also have a right to practice informed consent when they buy particular foods. Informed consent relies on our having access to reliable, truthful, and complete information.

Traits or characteristics that come from one's ancestors and are transmitted from parents to offspring through genes. The traits will therefore be present at birth.

Mass of cells on one side of a blastocystwhich will form the body of the embryo. This is where embryonic stem cells are taken from.

1. Chemicals that are not organic, that is, not manufactured within living organisms. 2. Any chemical compound not based on carbon chains or rings (except oxides, sulphides of carbon and metallic carbides that are also inorganic).

Traits introduced into crop plants with the aim of lowering the cost of production and improving the performance of the crop in the field. For example: pesticide resistance, herbicide tolerance and disease resistance. This is in comparison to traits introduced into the crop to produce products with improved value. These are referred to as output traits.

A chemical that kills insects.

A hormone that promotes the conversion of glucose to glycogen.

The content of the human intellect, or the result of intellectual effort, which is considered to be unique and original and have value in the marketplace, and therefore requires legal protection and ownership. This includes copyrighted material such as literary or artistic works, industrial processes, and trademarks and patents.

A sequence of DNA, found within a gene, which is initially copied into messenger RNA but is cut out before the messenger RNA is translated and does not have a function in coding for proteins.

An atom or group of atoms in which the number of electrons is different from the number of protons. If the number of electrons is less than the number of protons, the particle is a positive ion, also called a cation. If the number of electrons is greater than the number of protons, the particle is a negative ion, also called an anion.

An organised profile of an individual's chromosomes.

A breast milk protein that promotes infant growth.

An increase in the number of ineffective and immature white blood cells, causing a weakened immune system. This leaves the body susceptible to infection.

An enzyme that is used to join fragments of DNA together, for example in gene splicing.

A semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength. The output from an LED can range from red (at a wavelength of ~700nm) to blue-violet (~400nm).

Technology used for displays in notebook and other smaller computers. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)s allow displays to be much thinner than cathode ray tube technology. LCDs consume comparatively little power because they work on the principle of blocking light rather than emitting it.

A rechargeable battery with twice the energy capacity of a Nickel-Cadmium battery and greater stability and safety.

A complex large molecule formed from simpler molecules, usually with a diameter ranging from about 100-10 000 angstroms (10-5 to 10-3 mm).

A group of genes that control several aspects of the immune response. They code for markers located on the surface of all body cells and are recognised by the body as 'self' (belonging to the body). These genes define a person's tissue type and are used to determine whether a transplant would be compatible.

The group of vertebrates that have:

• internal development of the embryo
• mammary glands that can produce milk
• live-born young with a body covering of hair or fur
• a four-chambered heart
• a well-developed cerebral cortex
• the ability to maintain a constant body temperature
• a permanent set of teeth.

See genetic marker.

A mammal whose distinguishing features include the birth of young at an early foetal stage of development, and generally, a pouch (marsupium) in which further development of the foetus occurs.

Substance within which something else originates, develops, or is contained.

The study of melding Artificial Intelligence and electromechanical machines to make machines which are greater than the sum of their parts.

A type of cancer that begins in the melanocytes (the skin cells that produce pigments). It can spread to other areas of the body if not detected and treated early.

In biology a thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. In chemistry a membrane is a thin sheet of natural or synthetic material that can be penetrated, especially by liquids or gases. In environmental applications of nanotechnology a membrane can be used as a filter.

A hereditary process where genetic traits are passed from parents to offspring and are explained in terms of chromosomes separating, independent assortment of genes and the homologous exchange of segments of DNA. There are three modes of Mendelian inheritance: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive and X-linked inheritance. Named after Gregor Mendel, who first studied and recognised the existence of genes and this method of inheritance by breeding experiments with different varieties of peas.

An RNA molecule that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein. It is the intermediary molecule between DNA and ribosomes. mRNA takes encoded specifications from the cell's DNA, processes the message and takes it to the ribosomes, where the amino acids are assembled into polypeptides, which are then folded into proteins.

Like grouping of materials i.e. zinc oxide and titanium oxide.

Organisms that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. They are also known as microbes.

Individually encapsulated small particles.

The science of designing, manufacturing and formulating devices and processes that deal with volumes of fluid on the order of nanolitres or picolitres.

The genetic material of the mitochondria - the organelle that generates energy for the cell. The DNA in mitochondria is different from that in the nucleus. Many scientists believe that this DNA is the remnant of a bacterium that invaded the cell in very early evolution. MtDNA is typically passed on only from the mother during sexual reproduction, as only the nucleus of the sperm enters the egg upon fertilisation. Therefore, little change occurs in the mtDNA from generation to generation.

Also known as an assembler, a molecular assembler is a molecular machine that can build a molecular structure from its component building blocks.

A process used to make compound (multi-layer) semiconductors. The process consists of depositing alternating layers of materials, layer by layer, one type after another (such as the semiconductors gallium arsenide and aluminium gallium arsenide).

Any system with atomically precise electronic devices of nanometre dimensions, especially if made of discrete molecular parts rather than the continuous materials found in today's semiconductor devices.

A quasi-one-dimensional molecule that can transport charge carriers (electrons or holes) between its ends.

A form of manufacturing using molecular machinery, giving molecule-by-molecule control of products and by-products via positional chemical synthesis.

A group of atoms held together by chemical bonds. A molecule is the typical unit manipulated by nanotechnology.

Molecules, such as fats, with only one double bond in their chemical structure. Some plant oils and margarines, avocados, olives, nuts and seeds contain mostly mono-unsaturated fats.

The presence of only one chromosome of a pair.

The observation made in 1965 by Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, that the number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits had doubled every 18 months since the integrated circuit was invented. Moore predicted that this trend would continue for the foreseeable future.

To say that a group of organisms has moral standing is to say that their wellbeing must be given some consideration. It does not decide the question of whether they have the same moral standing as people (and thus have 'human' rights).

The potential to make a few cell types in the body. Usually in reference to adult stem cells.

A group of hereditary diseases that cause progressive muscle wastage due to defects in the biochemistry of a muscle tissue. The most common type is Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which is due to a defective gene on the X chromosome. Because the condition is sex-linked, it usually only affect males. It is usually lethal by the early 20's.

The process by which a gene undergoes a change in the base sequence. Some mutations result in the gene no longer coding for the correct protein, or producing a reduced amount of the protein.

A virus that causes myxomatosis in rabbits. It is carried by mosquitos and fleas.

A disease of rabbits caused by the myxoma virus. It is an early form of biological control.

A prefix meaning one billionth (1/1 000 000 000).

A generic term to describe nanoscale electrical/mechanical devices.

Interaction of light and matter on the nanoscale.

An ultra-sensitive, ultra-miniaturized array for biomolecular analysis.

Applies the tools and processes of nano/microfabrication to build devices for studying biosystems.

Polymer/inorganic nanocomposites are composed of two or more physically distinct components with one or more average dimensions smaller than 100nm. The role of inorganic filler (usually as particles or fibres) is to provide intrinsic strength and stiffness to assist the polymer matrix to adhere to, and bind, the inorganic component so that forces applied to the composite are transmitted evenly to the filler.

A computer made from components (mechanical, electronic, or otherwise) built at the nanometre scale.

Molecular-sized solids formed with a repeating, 3D pattern of atoms or molecules with an equal distance between each part. Nanocrystals are aggregates of anywhere from a few hundred to tens of thousands of atoms that combine into a crystalline form of matter known as a 'cluster'. Nanocrystals are typically around 10nm in diameter. Nanocrystals are larger than molecules but smaller than bulk solids and therefore frequently exhibit physical and chemical properties somewhere in-between. Nanocrystals have potential in optical electronics because of their ability to change the wavelength of light.

Electronics on a nanometre scale, whether made by current techniques or nanotechnology. It includes molecular electronics and nanoscale devices resembling today's semiconductor devices.

The design and manufacture of devices with dimensions measured in nanometres.

Groupings of nanotechnology-based materials, products and applications.

Hollow and solid carbon fibres with lengths on the order of a few microns and widths varying from tens of nanometres to around 200nm.

Controlling nanoscale amounts of fluids.

A type of single-walled carbon nanotube with an irregular horn-like shape.

A technique that is simple in concept and based around nanostructured forms or moulds (see also soft lithography).

Nanolithography is the art and science of etching, writing or printing at the microscopic level, where the dimensions of characters are on the order of nanometres. This includes various methods of modifying semiconductor chips at the atomic level for the purpose of fabricating integrated circuits.

The process of manipulating items at an atomic or molecular scale to produce precise structures.

Metals and metal oxides such as fullerenes, nanotubes, metals, quantum dots, nanoclays and crystals.

Nanotechnology applications for the purpose of making a medical diagnosis or treating disease.

One billionth of a metre. 10⁹m, or a millionth of a millimetre.

Nanoscopic pores found in purpose-built filters, sensors or diffraction gratings.

By some definitions, the range between 0.1-100nm. Other definitions concentrate less on size, regarding the existence of quantum capability as being the relevant characteristic.

Nanoscale metal spheres that can absorb or scatter light at virtually any wavelength.

A nanowire wrapped into a helix.

Areas of technology where dimensions and tolerances in the range of 0.1nm to 100nm play a critical role.

A one-dimensional fullerene (a convex cage of atoms with only hexagonal and/or pentagonal faces) with a cylindrical shape.

One-dimensional structures, with unique electrical and optical properties, that are used as building blocks in nanoscale devices.

Organisms that have not been recently introduced into an ecosystem.

Industrial chemicals (including polymers) not listed on the Australian Inventory of Chemical Substances.

Nanometre

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

A method of cloning a living organism. The process involves removing the nucleus of an egg cell and replacing it with a nucleus from any cell of the organism being cloned.

DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA(ribonucleic acid).

The subunit of nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, that consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. The bases are adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine in DNA and adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine in RNA.

The positively charged core of an atom, an object of -0.00001 atomic diameters containing >99.9 per cent of the atomic mass. Nuclear positions define atomic positions. The term can also refer to the cellular structure containing DNA.

A part of the Australian Department of Health and Ageing that assists the Gene Technology Regulator, a statutory office holder, to administer the Gene Technology Act 2000 (the Act). The objective of the Act is to protect the health and safety of people and to protect the environment by identifying risks posed by, or resulting from, gene technology and by managing those risks through regulating certain dealings with genetically modified organisms.

A gene that normally directs cell growth, but when it becomes mutated, has the ability to transform a normal cell into a tumour cell through uncontrolled growth.

A virus associated with cancer.

A structure within a cell that performs a particular function. Examples include mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, chloroplasts and lysosomes. Organelles are like smaller versions of the organs in your body, each performing a particular function to keep the whole cell alive.

LED made from carbon-based molecules.

A living thing that contains DNA and is capable of cell replication by itself; for example, bacteria, plants and animals.

Traits produced in GM crops, which are beneficial or of direct value to the consumer. For example, improving the quality of food, increasing fibre, lowering the fat content or increasing anti-oxidant levels.

An organism that lives in or on a host organism and uses it as a source of food and shelter, to the detriment of the host.

A grant made by a government that allows the creator of an invention the sole right to make, use, and sell that invention for a set period of time.

An organism or agent that causes disease. For example, bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi.

The ability to cause disease.

An organic compound composed of two or more amino acids linked together chemically by peptide bonds. A component of a polypeptide.

A chemical that kills pests.

The process of farming GM plants or animals to be used as living pharmaceutical factories. Cows, sheep, pigs, goats, rabbits and mice can be used to produce large amounts of human proteins in their milk. Plants are being used to produce vaccines and diagnostic reagents.

The study of an overall organism and how the characteristics or traits of an organism that we can see (its phenotype) fits with the information we know about its genes (genomics) and proteins(proteomics).

The visible characteristics or traits of an organism. Phenotypic traits are not necessarily entirely genetic and are produced by its genotype interacting with the environment.

A hereditary disorder that results in reduced production of the liver enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. This substance is involved in the breakdown of phenylalanine in food to tyrosine. Without a modified diet, affected infants will develop severe, irreversible brain damage.

The technique used to produce the silicon chips that make up modern-day computers. The traditional process involves shining light through a mask onto a photosensitive polymer on a silicon surface, then subsequently removing the exposed areas.

Electronics using light (photons) instead of electrons to manage data.

Along with Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), a group of surface treatments applied on tools and machine elements. In the area of machining and tooling, PVD coatings are widely used to increase the life and productivity of production tools and reduce manufacturing costs.

Chemicals that are coloured. For example, the pigment melanin determines skin colouration.

A small, circular piece of DNA found in bacteria and yeasts, which is able to replicate independently of the chromosome.

The ability of cells or tissue and their function to be influenced by an activity and how they respond to distinct environmental conditions.

The belief that there are multiple opinions about an issue, each of which contains part of the truth, but none that contain the whole truth.

The ability to produce any cell in the body. Usually used when referring to embryonic stem cells.

A laboratory process in which a segment of DNA is copied multiple times using DNA polymerase.

Variation in DNA sequence among individuals.

A peptide containing anywhere between 10 and 100 molecules of amino acids. Peptides can either be small proteins or part of a protein. A polypeptide is the ultimate expression product of a gene, and is folded into a functional protein after it has been assembled.

A fat that has more than one double bond in the molecule.

The term power has quite a few different meanings. For Biotechnology Online, we are referring to an organisation or individual's ability to act effectively according to their intentions, needs, or values.

Animal that kills another animal for food.

A defined, short length of DNA used to start the copying process in PCR.

The precursors of reproductive cells within the embryo. They are detectable in an embryo after four weeks of development and will develop into either sperm or eggs.

A chemical declared by the Minister for assessment under the National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) Existing Chemicals Program because its manufacture, handling, storage, use or disposal may give rise to an adverse risk to human health and/or the environment.

Any food product that has undergone physical or chemical treatment resulting in a substantial change in the original state of the food.

A long-chain molecule consisting of amino acids. The function of a protein is determined by the sequence of amino acids, which is determined by the sequence of DNA bases found in the gene coding for that protein.

Any of a large group of single-celled, usually microscopic, organisms such as amoeba.

A sequence of DNA that resembles a gene but is non functional and cannot be transcribed. It could be the remnant of a once-functional gene that has accumulated mutations.

A computer that takes advantage of quantum mechanical properties such as superposition and entanglement resulting from nanoscale, molecular, atomic and subatomic components.

A nanoscale crystalline structure that can reflect, refract or absorb light in a way that produces a specific colour. Quantum dots are considered to be more flexible than other fluorescent materials, making them suited to use in building nanoscale computing applications where light is used to process information. They are made from a variety of different compounds, for example, cadmium selenide.

Because of their small size, quantum dots have different optical and electrical properties from the bulk form of the same material. They emit photons when excited, and these are visible to the human eye as light. The wavelength of the photon emissions is not determined by the material from which the quantum dot is made, but its size. As a result, they can be 'tuned' to a chosen wavelength during manufacture"?

Another form of quantum dot, but unlike the single-dimension 'dot', a quantum wire is confined only in two dimensions - that is it has 'length', and allows the electrons to propagate in a particle-like fashion. Typically, quantum wires are constructed on a semiconductor base.

The quantum-computing analogue to a bit. Qubits exhibit superposition (that is, they can be in two places at once). Unlike normal bits, qubits can be both 1 and 0 at the same time.

A viral disease of wild animals that can be transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal. The disease has not yet been detected in Australia.

The seed of the rape plant, which is a source of edible oil. The rape plant is a bright yellow flowering variety of the Brassicaceae (mustard) family known as canola. It is generally grown and cultivated for animal feed, vegetable oil and biodiesel.

One of a pair of alleles that fails to be expressed in the phenotype of the organism when the dominant allele is present. Also refers to the phenotype, when an individual has only the recessive allele.

DNA formed by combining segments of DNA from different genes or different types of organisms.

New medical advances in which damaged body parts or body tissue is replaced or the body is encouraged to heal itself. From our understanding of our genes and how they work to control the growth, building and repair of our body, scientists are using regenerative medicine to study how to create new tissues for transplant, transplant stem cells into the body or how to induce the body to regenerate from the body's own cells.

Making a full living copy of an organism. Currently illegal in Australia and many other countries around the world.

An enzyme (normally derived from bacteria) that cuts strands of DNA at particular points along its length into shorter fragments.

A type of virus that contains RNA as its genetic material. Once in a host cell they perform a 'backwards' conversion of RNA to DNA, which inserts itself into an infected cell's own DNA. Retroviruses can cause many diseases, including some cancers and AIDS.

Molecule in the cytoplasm of cells that coordinates the interactions between tRNAs, mRNA and proteins in the complex process of protein synthesis.

Entitlements. Some rights (human rights) belong to everyone by virtue of being human; some rights (legal rights) belong to people by virtue of their belonging to a particular political state.

Used as a term for a danger that arises unpredictably, such as being struck by a car.

RNA is an acronym for ribonucleic acid. Many different kinds are now known. A main function of RNA is to carry information on amino acid sequences from the genes to where proteins are assembled on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

The enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of a complementary strand of RNA from either a DNA strand or an RNA strand in some viruses.

Freedom from danger.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome. It is caused by a virus thought to be a combination of the Coronavirus family (a virus that is often a cause of the common cold) and the paramyxovirus family (causes measles and mumps). The syndrome includes fever and coughing or difficulty breathing, and can be fatal. It is thought to have originated in mainland China in 2003 and has spread to other countries.

A fat that has only single bonds in the molecule.

A process in which new or improved strains of plants or animals are developed, mainly through controlled mating or crossing and selection of progeny for desired traits.

In materials processing or fabrication, it refers to the tendency of some materials to organize themselves into ordered arrays (e.g., colloidal suspensions). This provides a means to achieve structured materials from the bottom up as opposed to using manufacturing or fabrication methods such as lithography.

The ability of stem cells to continue to divide and replenish themselves indefinitely.

A substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound that can conduct electricity under certain conditions, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current. Its ability to conduct varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.

Determining the order of bases in a length of DNA. Provides information on where genes start and stop and where mutations or changes have occurred. It also allows you to translate the sequence of bases within a gene into what amino acids it codes for, and therefore what protein is produced.

One of the two chromosomes that specify the sex of an organism. Humans have two kinds of sex chromosomes; X and Y. Normal females possess two X chromosomes and normal males possess one X and one Y.

A technique to stop or interrupt the expression of a particular gene, most commonly by the insertion of a reverse copy of all or part of that gene.

A change in a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in a gene sequence, which causes a change in expression of the gene in the individual's phenotype.

Reactive materials that combine sensors and actuators, and possibly computers, to enable a response to environmental conditions and changes to those conditions. Examples include uniforms or aircraft skins fabricated from radar-absorbing materials that incorporate avionic links and the ability to modify shape in response to airflow.

An arrangement within a group of animals, such as rabbits, where some individuals are dominant over others. The more dominant an animal, the more likely it is to have preferred access to mates and sources of food.

A term for a collection of techniques (nanocontact printing and nanoimprinting) that are simple in concept and based around nanostructured forms, or moulds.

Any cell in a body other than a germ cell.

Pertaining to individuals of only one species. For example, a pesticide that is species-specific affects only one species.

The length of the individual fibres of cotton. Affects the quality of the fabric that is made from it.

Incapable of reproduction. Not able to germinate or bear fruit.

Short DNA sequences that are repeated in a head-to-tail manner. They are useful in DNA profiling.

In nanotechnology, the base on which molecular manufacturing takes place.

A person or animal that functions as a substitute for another. In the case of a surrogate mother, a woman or female animal carries an embryo and ultimately gives birth to a baby that was formed from the egg of another female.

An approach to development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It seeks to ensure that current development does not alter the environment's ability to recover from any damage sustained, and also makes use of renewable resources.

A lethal hereditary disease. The progressive accumulation of a substance called ganglioside in the brain causes paralysis, mental deterioration and blindness. Death usually occurs before the age of four.

The maximum amount of tensile stress that can be applied to a material before it ceases to be elastic. If too much force is applied the material will break or become plastic (i.e., once the force exertion is stopped the material will not go back to its initial shape).

A hereditary anaemia resulting from reduced production of either alpha or beta haemoglobin. Depending on the type, the condition can be fatal before or just after birth, or can result in varying levels of anaemia and development difficulties.

Generally referred to as somatic cell nuclear transfer technology. It involves replacing the nucleus of an egg cell with the nucleus from a cell from a patient's body and allowing it to develop to form a blastocyst. The embryonic stem cells from the inner cell mass are then harvested and used to establish a cell line that has the same genetic makeup of the patient. These cells can then be directed to develop into the tissue needed for transplant.

Thin films are atomically engineered layers of a wide variety of materials including metals, insulators and semiconductors. The major applications of thin films are in modification of the surface properties of solids. Individual films may be electrically conductive or non-conducting, hard or soft, thermally conducting or insulating, optically transparent, or opaque. A thin film coating can transform the electrical, mechanical and/or optical properties of a solid base material in a cost-effective way.

The separation of cells from each other and their growth in a container of liquid nutrients.

The application of engineering principles and methods to the life sciences. The aim is to develop a fundamental understanding of the relationships between structure and function in normal and abnormal mammalian tissues, and to design biological substitutes to restore, maintain, or improve functions.

Refers to making nanoscale structures by machining and etching techniques.

Cells capable of forming a completely new embryo that can develop into a new organism. For example, a fertilised egg is totipotent.

Poisonous.

A feature that is genetically controlled.

Refers to an organism with one or more genes that have been transferred to it from another organism using recombinant DNA techniques. See also GMO.

Having three copies of a particular chromosome in each somatic (body) cell instead of the normal two copies. This leads to certain conditions, for example Down syndrome (trisomy 21) or Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18).

Having no specific function.

A preparation that contains either whole disease-causing organisms such as viruses which have been killed or weakened, or parts of such organisms, used to confer immunity against the disease that the organisms cause. Vaccine preparations can be natural, synthetic or derived by recombinant DNA technology.

Modified crops produced with traits such as improved taste, nutritional value, or utility to provide value for the consumer.

Something used as a vehicle for transfer.

1. A bacteriophage, plasmid, or other agent that transfers genetic material from one cell to another. It can often be used carry foreign DNA into a host cell.
2. A disease vector is an agent that transfers a pathogen from one organism to another, for example, an insect.

A group of particles that do not have a cellular structure and cannot replicate outside of a host cell. They consist of a molecule of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. Viruses can only reproduce in living cells.

The study of biological systems that exist primarily in a water environment. The functional nanometre-scale structures are genetic material, membranes, enzymes and other cellular components. The success of this nanotechnology is demonstrated by the existence of living organisms whose form, function and evolution are governed by the interactions of nanometre-scale structures.

The term used to describe any procedure that involves the transplantation of live cells, tissues, or organs from one species to another, including animal-to-human transplantation.

Any one of a family of hydrous aluminum silicate minerals, whose molecules enclose cations of sodium, potassium, calcium, strontium or barium, or a corresponding synthetic compound, used chiefly as molecular filters and ion-exchange agents.